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in a Catholic Church (United States) " The Rite of Baptism for Children" ceremony]] Infant baptism, also known as christening or paedobaptism, is a Christian sacramental practice of Baptism infants and young children. Such practice is done in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, various Protestant denominations, and also in other denominations of Christianity.Brasher, B. (Ed.). (2001). Encyclopedia of fundamentalism: Volume 3 of religion & society (p. 47). Berkshire Publishing Group.Provance, B. S. (2010). Pocket Dictionary of Liturgy & Worship. United States: InterVarsity Press. "Infant baptism is practiced by the Anglican, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Roman, and Methodist churches, often followed by a later rite of *confirmation or profession of faith (Confessional statements: Aug. Conf. 9; Heid. Cat. 74; West. Conf. 28.4; CCC 1250-52; cf. Calvin, Institutes 4.16)" (p. 26). The practice involves baptizing infants born to believing parents as a means of initiating them into the Christian faith. Supporters of infant baptism cite biblical references to the baptism of entire households in the New Testament, as well as Jesus' teachings on welcoming children, as justification for this approach.
In contrast, believers' baptism (credobaptism) is based on the premise that baptism should be administered only to individuals who can personally profess their faith. Those who support this view argue that baptism is a conscious act of commitment to Christianity, requiring an understanding of its significance. As a result, they maintain that only those capable of articulating their belief should participate in the sacrament. This perspective is commonly held by Anabaptism, Baptists, Pentecostalism, and other Evangelicalism groups. Proponents of believers’ baptism argue that the absence of explicit references to infant baptism in the New Testament, along with the significance of baptism as a personal commitment.
"Although from the first baptism was the universal means of entry into the Christian community, the NT New contains no specific authority for its administration to infants" (Livingstone, 2006, p. 94).
McMaken, W. T. (2013). The Sign of the Gospel: Toward an Evangelical Doctrine of Infant Baptism After Karl Barth. United States: Fortress Press. "While some claim to find traces of infant baptism in the New Testament, the scholarly consensus is that no clear, indisputable evidence of the practice is present. On the other hand, there is likewise no clear, indisputable evidence that infant baptism did not occur in the earliest Christian communities" (p.14).Douglas, J. D., Toon, P. (2023). The Concise Dictionary of the Christian Tradition: Doctrine, Liturgy, History. United States: Zondervan. "Though there are no explicit statements that babies were baptized in the apostolic period, proponents of infant baptism see it as highly probable that they wereincluded in the households which were baptized (Acts 16:15, 31)" (p. 47-48). Scholarly consensus holds that infant baptism emerged gradually from the late 2nd century, became widespread by the 3rd century, and was universal by the 4th-5th centuries, coexisting with believers' baptism ( Acts of the Apostles 2:38–41) amid early debates.Kärkkäinen, V. (2021). An Introduction to Ecclesiology: Historical, Global, and Interreligious Perspectives. United Kingdom: IVP Academic. "In light of current scholarship, it is clear that infant baptism was a new development in relation to the New Testament and the earliest patristic theology. It emerged slowly and sporadically in various Christian locations; its legitimacy had to be demonstrated (Origen) and was sometimes outright rejected (Tertullian). This momentous shift developed gradually from the end of the second century. Not earlier than the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century, infant baptism established itself as the main mode of baptism. For the first five centuries of Christian history, believers' baptism and infant baptism coexisted" (p. 212).Harper's Encyclopedia of Religious Education. (1990). United Kingdom: Harper & Row. "In addition, the spread of infant baptism, which began to take root in the third century, contributed to the disappearance of the catechumenate" (p. 104)Johnson, M. (2018, April 26). The Development of the “Apostolic Tradition” in Early Christian Worship. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved 28 Apr. 2025, from https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-526. "Along with these specific ritual details, 3rd-century sources also show that infant baptism, including infant communion, was being practiced widely. Indeed, it was considered a normative practice in many early Christian communities."Gassmann, G., Larson, D. H., Oldenburg, M. W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. United States: Scarecrow Press. "...the catechumenate, fell out of use as infant baptism, attested around the year 200, became universal in the fourth and fifth centuries. Following the foundational teaching of Augustine that in baptism guilt and original sin are remitted, in 418 the Synod of Carthage decreed that infants must be baptized in order to be freed from original sin" (p. 34).Nicoletti, S. A. (2015, November 1). Infant baptism in the first-century presupposition pool. Tyndale Bulletin, 66(2). https://doi.org/10.53751/001c.29399Lynch, J. H. (2019). Godparents and Kinship in Early Medieval Europe. United States: Princeton University Press. "In 1938, and in a revised edition of 1958, Joachim Jeremias published a work challenging the scholarly consensus that held infant baptism to be unattested in the New Testament or in second-century Christian sources" (p. 117).
Historian David F. Wright (2007,2005), suggests that first-century Pauline churches did not practice infant baptism. Wright describes the issue as "obscurity unresolved," noting that evidence suggests children of baptized Christians were typically not baptized until at least c. 55 AD, during Paul's ministry, though the extent of this practice remains unclear.Wright, D. F. (2007). Infant baptism in historical perspective: Collected studies. (p. 20). Wipf and Stock Publishers. (2025). 9780199267835 ISBN 9780199267835
Despite this, some theologians argue for the early presence of infant baptism. Joachim Jeremias (2004) and William A. Strange (1996) argue that infant baptism originated in the Apostolic Age, asserting that children of converts were baptized alongside their families.Strange, W. A. (1996). Children in the early church: Children in the ancient world, the New Testament and the early church. Wipf & Stock, p. 123.Jeremias, J. (2004). Infant baptism in the first four centuries. Wipf & Stock Publishers. pp. 20-22. Advocates cite households baptisms within Acts of the Apostles (16:15, 33) and 1 Corinthians 1:16 as potential evidence. However, the Global Dictionary of Theology (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation. (2025). 9780830878116, InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830878116 Jeremias argues that baptism extended to all household members because the Old Testament concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of 1 Samuel 22:16–19 and Lech-Lecha:23. Therefore, the term "house" ( oikos) has been central to this debate.
Steven Nicoletti (2015), proposes that the New Testament’s silence on infant baptism may affirm its practice, drawing on the concept of “presupposition pools”—shared assumptions of the time. They argue that early Christian texts likely omitted explicit mention of infant baptism because it was widely accepted, mirroring cultural norms where infants were naturally included in religious rites.
Another line of reasoning explores parallels with Jewish culture. The analogy between circumcision and baptism is a key argument for early infant baptism. In Jewish culture, boys were circumcised on the Shemini Atzeret, and some scholars suggest early Jewish Christians viewed baptism similarly. Additionally, Jewish proselyte baptism included entire households, including children, as a purification rite for Gentile converts to Judaism.Ferguson, E. (2009). Baptism in the early church: History, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries. Eerdmans. pp. 78–80. Theologian Kurt Aland (2004) counters that this was not standard for Jewish-born children, who were typically incorporated via circumcision, not baptism, weakening the parallel to Christian practice.
Further insight comes from early Christian texts addressing the Sin of infants or young children. Clement of Rome (1 Clement 14.4) stated, "No one is clean from defilement, not even if his life be but one day old." Although later used out of context, this became a proof-text for baptism addressing original sin. This view aligns with Psalm 51:5, which states, "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me," supporting the early Christian belief in humanity’s inherent sinfulness from birth.Boaheng, I., & Twumasi-Ankrah, E. (2024). Exegetical and theological analysis of Psalm 51:1-12. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 7(1), 504–517. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v7i1.1962 Similarly, the Didache, a church order dated to the late 1st or early 2nd century, provides instructions for adult baptism but notes that children should receive teaching to prevent future sin, without explicitly addressing their baptism.Jefford, C. N. (1989). The sayings of Jesus in the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. Brill. pp. 87-88. Early 1st-century Christian texts, like 1 Clement and Psalm 51:5, highlight universal sinfulness, linking baptism to sin’s remission and laying groundwork for the doctrine of original sin, later justifying infant baptism. Yet, direct evidence for the practice in this period is absent, leaving its prevalence uncertain.Ferguson, E. (1979, April). Inscriptions and the origin of infant baptism. The Journal of Theological Studies, 30(1), 37–46.
Regardless, Christianity was growing in popularity and expansion during this period, structured catechesis became essential to prepare converts for faith amid persecution and heresies. This formalized approach to baptism, emphasizing instruction, according to Nelson (1996) likely reduced the practice of infant baptism, which required no prior preparation.
Insights into early Christian apologists viewed infants and young children as sinless or morally innocent. Notable examples include :The Shepherd of Hermas (c. 100–150 AD) which portrays children as models of discipleship and moral purity, inherently innocent and free of evil, serving as an example for believers. The Shepherd of Hermas, Similitude 9, Chapter 29, verses 1–3 (Sim. 9.29.1–3). Aristides of Athens ( Apology, Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that Christian children are born Impeccability and, if they Infant mortality, are celebrated for passing from life without sin: “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.” (1999). 9780891120452, ACU Press. ISBN 9780891120452 Athenagoras of Athens (On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD): stated that infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good." Justin Martyr ( First Apology, 15, c. 155 AD; Second Apology, 10, c. 153 AD) described infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they can rationally choose to sin, emphasizing free will and the "seed of the Logos." He praised the purity of "disciples from childhood," suggesting no innate sinfulness.
Despite this, inscriptions such as from Rome’s Catacomb of Priscilla mentions an infant who had received baptism before dying. Such inscriptions suggest that infant baptism was practiced regularly, especially in cases of illness or impending death (Emergency baptism). Scholars like Jeremias and Ferguson examined inscriptional evidence related to infant baptism, Aland argued that third-century inscriptions offered no significant new information. By that period, infant baptism was already well attested in existing literary sources.
These existing literary sources included: Hippolytus of Rome ( Apostolic Tradition 21.3-5) directed: “The little children shall be baptized first. If they can speak for themselves, let them do so; otherwise, their parents or a relative should answer on their behalf.” Origen claimed that infant baptism was an apostolic tradition passed down to the Church, though it remains uncertain whether his view stemmed from theological reasoning or scriptural exegesis. Regardless, his writings attests that the custom was already firmly rooted. Cyprian further insisted that baptism should not be postponed, even for infants, asserting that God’s grace is "not given in greater or lesser measure based on the recipient’s age."
During this period, the Church strongly condemned Pelagianism, which questioned the necessity of baptism for salvation, and affirmed that baptism must be administered without delay. For example, official decrees such as the Council of Florence’s Pro Jacobitis warned against postponing baptism, thereby underlining that infants (and others) must receive baptism promptly to secure salvation. These developments, along with texts from the Council of Carthage and the Roman Catechism that taught unbaptized infants could not attain heaven, demonstrate that by the end of the fourth century infant baptism was a widely accepted and normative practice in the Church.
Several prominent Christian leaders, such as Tertullian, Rufinus, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Cyril of Alexandria, attest to the widespread practice of Child dedication or enrollment in the catechumenate rather than immediate baptism. This custom was observed across major Christian centers, from Carthage and Milan to Constantinople and Alexandria. Consequently, in the fourth century, dedicating infants and later instructing them in the catechumenate remained the normative practice, while infant baptism was generally administered only in cases of urgent necessity (emergency baptism). According to Andrew Messmer (2022), many prominent Christian leaders, though born into Christian families, were not baptized as infants but received it later in life. For instance, Novatian (200–258) was only baptized during a grave illness, while Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329–390) waited until around age thirty. Basil of Caesarea was baptized at approximately 27 (c. 357), and Gregory of Nyssa between ages 23 and 28. Ambrose (340–397) remained unbaptized until his sudden election as bishop in 374, and John Chrysostom (347–407) was baptized around age 20 (c. 368). Jerome (347–420) received baptism at 19 (366), and Augustine (354–430), despite his devout mother Monica’s influence, delayed his baptism until age 33 (387). This pattern reflects the widespread practice of delaying baptism, even among those raised in Christian households.
Regarding their views, the early Church Fathers held divergent views on infant baptism, reflecting the theological tensions of their era. Augustine of Hippo, in his anti-Pelagian writings, maintained that baptism was essential for cleansing original sin, asserting that only through this sacrament could infants be incorporated into Christ's flock. He issued grave warnings about the eternal consequences of dying unbaptized. In contrast, Gregory of Nazianzus adopted a more moderate position, arguing that since infants lack awareness of sin or grace, baptism should be deferred unless imminent danger threatened their lives - suggesting age three as an appropriate minimum or when children could actively participate in the rite. Jerome took a decidedly proactive stance, particularly in his correspondence with Laeta (403 AD), where he framed infant baptism as a fundamental parental obligation, implying negligence in those who delayed the sacrament. These differing perspectives illustrate the evolving theology surrounding baptismal practices in early Christianity.
According to Robin M. Jensen (2012), archaeological evidence supports the existence of diverse baptismal practices in early Christianity. The variation in baptismal font designs suggests differences in liturgical customs, while third- and fourth-century funerary inscriptions confirm that some infants received emergency baptisms - though these do not demonstrate it was a widespread norm. The interpretation of iconographic evidence remains contested, as depictions of small figures undergoing baptism could represent either the baptism of Jesus or early instances of infant baptism. This ambiguity in material evidence mirrors the theological diversity seen in textual sources from the period.
By the early sixth century, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of repeatable penance further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal damnation. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were Baptism, Anointing (confirmation), and received communion all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the salvific rite. Writings from such as John the Deacon’s letter (c. 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to original sin. Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries. In the sixth century, 526 AD, eastern Roman emperor, Justinian I made infant baptism compulsory.
The Church requires assurance that baptized infants will be raised Catholic (Canon 868 §1, 2° CIC). Parental consent is mandatory - at least one parent/guardian must approve. Baptism cannot be administered against parental wishes except in danger of death, when it may proceed regardless of objections. Additionally, baptism is seen as a one-time sacrament that marks a person's commitment to Christ and cannot be repeated. If there is serious doubt about whether someone was baptized before or if it was done correctly, the Catholic Church allows a conditional baptism to be performed. Moreover, the practice of baptizing miscarried or stillborn infants is no longer done.
The Church recognizes both pouring (affusion) and immersion as valid baptismal methods, stating that the symbolic cleansing is preserved through the ritual use of water, even when full immersion isn't practiced.
The Church acknowledges the importance of a personal decision in baptism, which infants cannot make. To address this, godparents are appointed to stand in for the child, committing to their Christian upbringing on behalf of the parents. The role of parents and godparents is strongly emphasized in the Church's rite of infant baptism, which was revised on the instructions of the Second Vatican Council.Second Vatican Council, Sacrosanctum Concilium, paragraph 67, published on 4 December 1963, accessed on 2 July 2025 As they grow, baptized children are expected to embrace the faith chosen for them, confirming the decision made on their behalf.
Historically, such practices were developed gradually, rooted in early Christian tradition, original sin, and sacramental theology. While adult baptism was initially dominant, the practice of baptizing infants became common by the third century. Cyprian (c. 250 AD) defended it, arguing that baptismal grace should not be denied to children.Johnson, M. E. (1999). Baptismal" Spirituality" in the Early Church and Its Implications for the Church Today. pp. 188-211. In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo linked baptism to original sin, asserting that it was necessary for salvation. His arguments shaped medieval sacramental theology, which emphasized that baptism remained valid regardless of personal faith (ex opere operato). The concept of limbo ( limbus infantium), a speculative idea that unbaptized infants neither enter heaven nor suffer in hell, was never official Church doctrine. Though widely held from the 12th century onward, belief in limbo had largely faded by the 20th century.
In response to Protestant critiques, the Council of Trent (1545–1563) firmly upheld infant baptism as obligatory, solidifying its standard practice with support from godparents and catechesis. Today, the Church teaches that unbaptized infants are entrusted to God’s mercy, while maintaining that baptism remains essential for initiation into the faith and liberation from original sin.
pp.13-14. The baptism is performed through triple immersion in water, symbolizing the believer’s sharing in Christ’s death and resurrection. In Orthodox theology, sacraments are considered effective by the very act of their completion (ex opere operato), meaning they impart divine grace regardless of the recipient’s personal understanding.House, H. W. (2000). Baptism for the forgiveness of sins: Sign, seal, or means of grace? (Part 1). Christian Research Journal, 22(2), 1–33.
The Orthodox Church, like the Roman Catholic Church, believes that baptism results in the forgiveness of sins, both original and Actual sin. Through baptism, the newly baptized is "clothed with Christ" and becomes a full member of the Church. The sacrament is viewed as a mystical communion with God, through which grace is given for salvation and spiritual transformation. This understanding reflects the Orthodox belief that sacraments are "Mysteries", divine means by which humanity experiences salvation and anticipates eternal life in God’s kingdom.
Baptism in the Orthodox Church is immediately followed by Chrismation (Confirmation) and Eucharist, emphasizing the unity of these three sacraments. Chrismation, administered by the priest, involves anointing the baptized with Chrism, sealing them with the gift of the Holy Spirit. The newly baptized, including infants, then receive the Eucharist, partaking in consecrated wine and bread as their first communion. This integrated approach contrasts with many Western Christian traditions, where these sacraments are administered separately at different stages of life.
The baptism of infants is performed on the basis of the faith of the Church, rather than the personal profession of the child. The commitment of parents and godparents plays a crucial role, as they pledge to raise the child in the Orthodox faith. While infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, mirroring the Old Testament practice of circumcision, this timing is not strictly required, and baptisms may occur at any time. Orthodox theology holds that baptism is essential for salvation and the remission of original sin, making it a vital sacrament in the life of every Orthodox Christian.Ware, K. (1993). The Orthodox Church: An introduction to Eastern Christianity (p. 284). Penguin UK.
Lutherans believe that through baptism, the child receives infused faith, mediated by the prayers of the church, parents, and godparents. Baptism purifies and renews the child. Personal faith is not a prerequisite for baptism but is nourished by it, as the individual continually adheres to God's grace and renounces sin throughout life. The Augsburg Confession (II) states that baptism is necessary for salvation. It is an assignment to Christ, a surrender into Jesus’ death and resurrection, and a gift of new life that calls the baptized to walk in faith.
While baptism marks initiation into the church and incorporation into the people of God, it is viewed as the beginning of a lifelong journey. If not taken in faith, baptism remains incomplete. In the post-Reformation era, Lutheran orthodoxy reaffirmed the necessity of infant baptism. However, later movements such as Pietism and Rationalism emphasized inner experience over the sacrament, leading figures like John Wesley to argue that true rebirth occurs through personal transformation, not the outward ritual.
In Eastern Christianity, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the sacrament of Confirmation is conferred immediately after baptism, and there is no renewal of baptismal promises. In the Latin Church and its Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, the sacrament is to be conferred at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is danger of death or, in the judgment of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise ( canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The renewal of baptismal promises by those receiving the sacrament in the Western Catholic Church is incidental to the rite and not essentially different from the solemn renewal of their baptismal promises that is asked of all members of this church each year at the Easter Vigil service. Only in French-speaking countries has there been a development of ceremonies, quite distinct from the sacrament of Confirmation, for young Catholics to profess their faith publicly, in line with their age.cf. article entitled Redonner tout son sens à l'initiation chrétienne : un défi à relever in Lumière et Vie 270 (June 2006), proposing the establishment of as many as seven such occasions.
Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, confirmation or "the laying on of hands" is an essential part of the baptismal ordinance, and to receive baptism without confirmation is to leave the ordinance incomplete. Confirmation is the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost as a constant companion. To confirm means to "make more sure" and the ordinance of confirmation stands as a witness of the individual becoming a member of the LDS Church and not just an acceptance of Jesus.
As for the historical viewpoint, critics argue that infant baptism originated as a post-apostolic ecclesiastical innovation, lacking direct biblical or apostolic authorization, and dismiss it as a human tradition unsupported by divine revelation.(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 198)
Regarding consent, Mary McAleese, a Catholic legal scholar and former Irish president, posits in her doctoral research that infant baptism functions as “enforced membership” within the Catholic Church, raising questions about consent and lifelong obligations imposed on children. She suggests that baptized individuals should later have the opportunity to formally affirm or renounce their membership, aligning with modern principles of freedom of conscience, belief, and religion. McAleese observes that the Catholic Church has yet to fully integrate these principles into its sacramental theology.
Specifically, the LDS Church has stated that little children are considered both born without sin and incapable of committing sin. They have no need of baptism until age eight, when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong, and are thus accountable to God for their own actions. However, the LDS Church performs a non-saving ordinance to name and bless children, customarily performed on infants.
On February 5, 2021, a six-week-old baby died in Suceava, within a Romanian Orthodox Church, after a baptism involving triple immersion in holy water, led to cardiac arrest and liquid in the lungs. A manslaughter inquiry targeted the priest involved. Archbishop Calinic of Arges called for reviewing baptism practices, favoring alternatives like sprinkling, while the Archbishop of Tomis defended the traditional ritual, rejecting change. A petition for safer baptisms gained 60,000 signatures.
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Individuals originating from regions near Lalish frequently translate the mor kirin ceremony as 'baptism,' due to its observable similarities with Christian baptismal rites.
The rite is performed by either a male or female member of a shaikh or pir family who serves as the officiating Mijêwir (custodian) at Lalish, specifically holding the position of Micêwirê Kaniya Sipî (custodian of the White Spring) during the ceremony.
The officiant pours holy water from one of Lalish's sacred springs over the child's head in three ritual motions. While the ideal age for reception is nine or ten years, practical considerations often lead to earlier administration. Although circumcision is not a religious requirement, some families observe the practice due to regional customs.
According to Yazidis tradition, individuals who die without undergoing mor kirin must be ritually washed by their shaikh, pir, or designated "Brother/Sister of the Hereafter" (Kurdish language Birayê/Xuşka Axiretê). If none of these are available, another person may perform the washing in their name. For those unable to travel to Lalish, the rite may be conducted using holy water transported from the sacred springs of Lalish to their location.
However, adherence to this practice varies geographically. Yazidis originating from areas near Lalish observe the custom more consistently than those from Turkey or Armenia, among whom the ritual has largely diminished in perceived necessity.
While the mor kirin ceremony may reflect historical Christian influences, its origins remain speculative. Given the significance of water in pre-Islamic Iranian religions, the rite could equally stem from earlier indigenous traditions.
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